How Did the Degenerate Art Exhibition Seek to Manipulate What Was Classified as art?

Pejorative term used by the Nazi Political party for modern art

Degenerate art (German language: Entartete Kunst ) was a term adopted in the 1920s past the Nazi Political party in Deutschland to describe modernistic art. During the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, German language modernist art, including many works of internationally renowned artists, was removed from state-owned museums and banned in Nazi Germany on the grounds that such art was an "insult to German feeling", un-German, Freemasonic, Jewish, or Communist in nature. Those identified equally degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions that included being dismissed from pedagogy positions, beingness forbidden to showroom or to sell their art, and in some cases existence forbidden to produce fine art.^[1]

Degenerate Art likewise was the title of an exhibition, held past the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of 650 modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the fine art. Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Republic of austria.

While mod styles of art were prohibited, the Nazis promoted paintings and sculptures that were traditional in fashion and that exalted the "blood and soil" values of racial purity, militarism, and obedience. Similar restrictions were placed upon music, which was expected to be tonal and costless of any jazz influences; disapproved music was termed degenerate music. Films and plays were also censored.^[ii]

Theories of degeneracy [edit]

Das Magdeburger Ehrenmal (the Magdeburg cenotaph), by Ernst Barlach was declared to be degenerate art due to the "deformity" and emaciation of the figures—corresponding to Nordau's theorized connection between "mental and physical degeneration".

The term Entartung (or "degeneracy") had gained currency in Germany past the late 19th century when the critic and writer Max Nordau devised the theory presented in his 1892 book Entartung.^[3] Nordau drew upon the writings of the criminologist Cesare Lombroso, whose The Criminal Human, published in 1876, attempted to bear witness that there were "built-in criminals" whose atavistic personality traits could be detected by scientifically measuring abnormal physical characteristics. Nordau developed from this premise a critique of modern art, explained as the work of those and then corrupted and enfeebled past modern life that they have lost the self-control needed to produce coherent works. He attacked Aestheticism in English literature and described the mysticism of the Symbolist movement in French literature as a product of mental pathology. Explaining the painterliness of Impressionism as the sign of a diseased visual cortex, he decried modernistic degeneracy while praising traditional German culture. Despite the fact that Nordau was Jewish and a key figure in the Zionist motion (Lombroso was likewise Jewish), his theory of artistic degeneracy would be seized upon by German language Nazis during the Weimar Republic equally a rallying point for their antisemitic and racist demand for Aryan purity in art.

Belief in a Germanic spirit—defined as mystical, rural, moral, bearing ancient wisdom, and noble in the face of a tragic destiny—existed long before the rise of the Nazis; the composer Richard Wagner celebrated such ideas in his writings.^{[4] [5]} Starting time before Globe War I, the well-known High german builder and painter Paul Schultze-Naumburg's influential writings, which invoked racial theories in condemning modern art and compages, supplied much of the basis for Adolf Hitler's belief that classical Greece and the Middle Ages were the true sources of Aryan art.^[6] Schultze-Naumburg subsequently wrote such books equally Die Kunst der Deutschen. Ihr Wesen und ihre Werke (The art of the Germans. Its nature and its works) and Kunst und Rasse (Art and Race), the latter published in 1928, in which he argued that only racially pure artists could produce a healthy art which upheld timeless ideals of classical beauty, while racially mixed mod artists produced disordered artworks and monstrous depictions of the human form. By reproducing examples of modern fine art next to photographs of people with deformities and diseases, he graphically reinforced the idea of modernism as a sickness.^[7] Alfred Rosenberg developed this theory in Der Mythos des xx. Jahrhunderts (Myth of the Twentieth Century), published in 1933, which became a all-time-seller in Federal republic of germany and fabricated Rosenberg the Political party's leading ideological spokesman.^[eight]

Reactions confronting modernism in Royal and Weimar Germany [edit]

The early 20th century was a menstruation of wrenching changes in the arts. In the visual arts, such innovations every bit Fauvism, Cubism, Dada, and Surrealism—following Symbolism and Post-Impressionism—were not universally appreciated. The majority of people in Germany, as elsewhere, did not care for the new fine art, which many resented every bit elitist, morally suspect, and too frequently incomprehensible.^[9] Wilhelm II, who took an active interest in regulating art in Germany, criticized Impressionism as "gutter painting" ( Gossenmalerei )^[10] and forbade Käthe Kollwitz from beingness awarded a medal for her print series A Weavers' Defection when it was displayed in the Berlin Yard Exhibition of the Arts in 1898.^[xi] In 1913, the Prussian house of representatives passed a resolution "against degeneracy in art".^[10]

Nether the Weimar authorities of the 1920s, Germany emerged as a leading center of the avant-garde. It was the birthplace of Expressionism in painting and sculpture, of the atonal musical compositions of Arnold Schoenberg, and the jazz-influenced work of Paul Hindemith and Kurt Weill. Films such as Robert Wiene'southward The Chiffonier of Dr. Caligari (1920) and F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu (1922) brought Expressionism to cinema.

The Nazis viewed the culture of the Weimar menstruation with disgust. Their response stemmed partly from a conservative artful gustation and partly from their decision to use civilisation every bit a propaganda tool.^[12] On both counts, a painting such as Otto Dix'due south War Cripples (1920) was anathema to them. It unsparingly depicts 4 badly disfigured veterans of the Commencement World War, then a familiar sight on Berlin'southward streets, rendered in caricatured style. (In 1937, it would be displayed in the Degenerate Art exhibition next to a label accusing Dix—himself a volunteer in World War I^[xiii]—of "an insult to the German heroes of the Cracking War".^[fourteen])

Art historian Henry Grosshans says that Hitler "saw Greek and Roman fine art as uncontaminated by Jewish influences. Modernistic art was [seen as] an act of aesthetic violence by the Jews against the German spirit. Such was truthful to Hitler even though simply Liebermann, Meidner, Freundlich, and Marc Chagall, amidst those who made pregnant contributions to the High german modernist movement, were Jewish. But Hitler ... took upon himself the responsibleness of deciding who, in matters of civilisation, thought and acted like a Jew."^[fifteen] The supposedly "Jewish" nature of all art that was indecipherable, distorted, or that represented "depraved" subject thing was explained through the concept of degeneracy, which held that distorted and corrupted art was a symptom of an inferior race. By propagating the theory of degeneracy, the Nazis combined their antisemitism with their bulldoze to control the culture, thus consolidating public support for both campaigns.^[16]

Nazi purge [edit]

In 1930 Wilhelm Frick, a Nazi, became Government minister for Culture and Didactics in the state of Thuringia.^[17] Past his social club, 70 generally Expressionist paintings were removed from the permanent exhibition of the Weimar Schlossmuseum in 1930, and the manager of the König Albert Museum in Zwickau, Hildebrand Gurlitt, was dismissed for displaying modern art.^[x]

Albert Gleizes, 1912, Landschaft bei Paris, Paysage près de Paris, Paysage de Courbevoie, missing from Hannover since 1937^{[1] [xviii]}

Hitler's ascension to power on Jan 31, 1933, was apace followed by actions intended to cleanse the culture of degeneracy: book burnings were organized, artists and musicians were dismissed from teaching positions, and curators who had shown a partiality for modernistic art were replaced by Party members.^[21] In September 1933, the Reichskulturkammer (Reich Culture Sleeping room) was established, with Joseph Goebbels, Hitler'due south Reichsminister für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda (Reich Minister for Public Enlightenment and Propaganda) in charge. Sub-chambers inside the Culture Chamber, representing the private arts (music, moving-picture show, literature, compages, and the visual arts) were created; these were membership groups consisting of "racially pure" artists supportive of the Political party, or willing to be compliant. Goebbels made information technology clear: "In future but those who are members of a sleeping room are immune to be productive in our cultural life. Membership is open only to those who fulfill the entrance condition. In this fashion all unwanted and damaging elements accept been excluded."^[22] By 1935 the Reich Civilisation Sleeping room had 100,000 members.^[22]

Every bit dictator, Hitler gave his personal gustatory modality in art the force of police force to a degree never before seen. Merely in Stalin'south Soviet Union, where Socialist Realism was the mandatory style, had a mod country shown such concern with regulation of the arts.^[23] In the case of Germany, the model was to be classical Greek and Roman fine art, regarded past Hitler as an art whose exterior class embodied an inner racial ideal.^[24]

Nonetheless, during 1933–1934 there was some confusion within the Political party on the question of Expressionism. Goebbels and some others believed that the forceful works of such artists as Emil Nolde, Ernst Barlach and Erich Heckel exemplified the Nordic spirit; equally Goebbels explained, "We National Socialists are non unmodern; we are the carrier of a new modernity, not only in politics and in social matters, but also in art and intellectual matters."^[25] However, a faction led past Alfred Rosenberg despised the Expressionists, and the result was a bitter ideological dispute, which was settled only in September 1934, when Hitler alleged that there would exist no place for modernist experimentation in the Reich.^[26] This edict left many artists initially uncertain as to their status. The work of the Expressionist painter Emil Nolde, a committed member of the Nazi party, connected to be debated fifty-fifty after he was ordered to cease creative activity in 1936.^[27] For many modernist artists, such as Max Beckmann, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, and Oskar Schlemmer, information technology was not until June 1937 that they surrendered whatever hope that their piece of work would exist tolerated by the authorities.^[28]

Although books past Franz Kafka could no longer be bought by 1939, works by ideologically suspect authors such as Hermann Hesse and Hans Fallada were widely read.^[29] Mass culture was less stringently regulated than loftier civilisation, possibly because the authorities feared the consequences of too heavy-handed interference in popular entertainment.^[thirty] Thus, until the outbreak of the war, well-nigh Hollywood films could be screened, including It Happened One Dark, San Francisco, and Gone with the Wind. While performance of atonal music was banned, the prohibition of jazz was less strictly enforced. Benny Goodman and Django Reinhardt were pop, and leading British and American jazz bands connected to perform in major cities until the state of war; thereafter, trip the light fantastic toe bands officially played "swing" rather than the banned jazz.^[31]

Entartete Kunst exhibit [edit]

Entartete Kunst poster, Berlin, 1938

Letter to Emil Nolde in 1941 from Adolf Ziegler, who declares that Nolde's art is degenerate art, and forbids him to pigment.

By 1937, the concept of degeneracy was firmly entrenched in Nazi policy. On June 30 of that yr Goebbels put Adolf Ziegler, the head of Reichskammer der Bildenden Künste (Reich Chamber of Visual Art), in charge of a half-dozen-man commission authorized to confiscate from museums and art collections throughout the Reich, any remaining art deemed modernistic, degenerate, or subversive. These works were then to be presented to the public in an showroom intended to incite further revulsion against the "perverse Jewish spirit" penetrating German civilisation.^[32]

Over 5000 works were seized, including 1052 by Nolde, 759 by Heckel, 639 by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and 508 by Max Beckmann, as well every bit smaller numbers of works past such artists every bit Alexander Archipenko, Marc Chagall, James Ensor, Albert Gleizes, Henri Matisse, Jean Metzinger, Pablo Picasso, and Vincent van Gogh.^[33] The Entartete Kunst exhibit, featuring over 650 paintings, sculptures, prints, and books from the collections of 32 German museums, premiered in Munich on July xix, 1937, and remained on view until Nov thirty, earlier traveling to 11 other cities in Frg and Austria.

The showroom was held on the second floor of a edifice formerly occupied by the Institute of Archeology. Viewers had to reach the exhibit by means of a narrow staircase. The first sculpture was an oversized, theatrical portrait of Jesus, which purposely intimidated viewers as they literally bumped into it in guild to enter. The rooms were made of temporary partitions and deliberately cluttered and overfilled. Pictures were crowded together, sometimes unframed, commonly hung by cord.

The first three rooms were grouped thematically. The kickoff room contained works considered demeaning of faith; the second featured works by Jewish artists in detail; the third contained works accounted insulting to the women, soldiers and farmers of Germany. The rest of the exhibit had no item theme.

At that place were slogans painted on the walls. For example:

• Insolent mockery of the Divine nether Centrist rule
• Revelation of the Jewish racial soul
• An insult to German womanhood
• The ideal—cretin and whore
• Deliberate sabotage of national defense
• German language farmers—a Yiddish view
• The Jewish longing for the wilderness reveals itself—in Germany the Negro becomes the racial platonic of a degenerate art
• Madness becomes method
• Nature as seen by ill minds
• Fifty-fifty museum bigwigs chosen this the "art of the German language people"^[34]

Speeches of Nazi political party leaders assorted with creative person manifestos from diverse fine art movements, such as Dada and Surrealism. Adjacent to many paintings were labels indicating how much coin a museum spent to acquire the artwork. In the case of paintings acquired during the post-war Weimar hyperinflation of the early 1920s, when the toll of a kilogram loaf of bread reached 233 billion German language marks,^[35] the prices of the paintings were of class profoundly exaggerated. The showroom was designed to promote the idea that modernism was a conspiracy past people who hated High german decency, frequently identified as Jewish-Bolshevist, although only six of the 112 artists included in the exhibition were in fact Jewish.^[36]

The exhibition plan contained photographs of modern artworks accompanied by defamatory text.^[37] The cover featured the exhibition title—with the give-and-take "Kunst" , meaning art, in scare quotes—superimposed on an prototype of Otto Freundlich'southward sculpture Der Neue Mensch .

A few weeks afterwards the opening of the exhibition, Goebbels ordered a second and more thorough scouring of German art collections; inventory lists point that the artworks seized in this second round, combined with those gathered prior to the exhibition, amounted to 16,558 works.^{[38] [39]}

Coinciding with the Entartete Kunst exhibition, the Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung (Smashing German art exhibition) made its premiere among much pageantry. This exhibition, held at the palatial Haus der deutschen Kunst (Business firm of German Art), displayed the work of officially approved artists such every bit Arno Breker and Adolf Wissel. At the end of four months Entartete Kunst had attracted over two 1000000 visitors, near three and a half times the number that visited the nearby Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung.^[40]

Fate of the artists and their work [edit]

Avant-garde German artists were at present branded both enemies of the state and a threat to German culture. Many went into exile. Max Beckmann fled to Amsterdam on the opening twenty-four hours of the Entartete Kunst exhibit.^[41] Max Ernst emigrated to America with the assistance of Peggy Guggenheim. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner committed suicide in Switzerland in 1938. Paul Klee spent his years in exile in Switzerland, still was unable to obtain Swiss citizenship considering of his status equally a degenerate artist. A leading High german dealer, Alfred Flechtheim, died penniless in exile in London in 1937.

Other artists remained in internal exile. Otto Dix retreated to the countryside to paint unpeopled landscapes in a meticulous style that would non provoke the authorities.^[42] The Reichskulturkammer forbade artists such equally Edgar Ende and Emil Nolde from purchasing painting materials. Those who remained in Germany were forbidden to work at universities and were subject to surprise raids past the Gestapo in order to ensure that they were non violating the ban on producing artwork; Nolde secretly carried on painting, but using just watercolors (and then as not to be betrayed past the telltale odor of oil paint).^[43] Although officially no artists were put to death considering of their work, those of Jewish descent who did not escape from Germany in time were sent to concentration camps.^[44] Others were murdered in the Action T4 (meet, for instance, Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler).

After the exhibit, paintings were sorted out for sale and sold in Switzerland at sale; some pieces were acquired by museums, others by individual collectors. Nazi officials took many for their private use: for instance, Hermann Göring took 14 valuable pieces, including a Van Gogh and a Cézanne. In March 1939, the Berlin Fire Brigade burned about 4000 paintings, drawings and prints that had apparently picayune value on the international market place. This was an act of unprecedented vandalism, although the Nazis were well used to book burnings on a large scale.^{[45] [46]}

A large amount of "degenerate fine art" by Picasso, Dalí, Ernst, Klee, Léger and Miró was destroyed in a bonfire on the nighttime of July 27, 1942, in the gardens of the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume in Paris.^[47] Whereas it was forbidden to export "degenerate art" to Germany, information technology was still possible to buy and sell artworks of "degenerate artists" in occupied France. The Nazis considered indeed that they should not be concerned by Frenchmen's mental health.^[48] Equally a consequence, many works made by these artists were sold at the primary French auction house during the occupation.^[49]

The couple Sophie and Emanuel Fohn, who exchanged the works for harmless works of art from their own possession and kept them in safety custody throughout the National Socialist era, saved about 250 works by ostracized artists. The collection survived in Southward Tyrol from 1943 and was handed over to the Bavarian Country Painting Collections in 1964.^[fifty]

After the collapse of Nazi Germany and the invasion of Berlin past the Red Army, some artwork from the exhibit was plant buried underground. It is unclear how many of these and so reappeared in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, where they still remain.

In 2010, as work began to extend an underground line from Alexanderplatz through the historic city centre to the Brandenburg Gate, a number of sculptures from the degenerate art exhibition were unearthed in the cellar of a private house close to the "Rote Rathaus". These included, for instance, the bronze cubist-style statue of a female dancer by the artist Marg Moll, and are now on brandish at the Neues Museum.^{[51] [52] [53]}

Artists in the 1937 Munich prove [edit]

• Jankel Adler
• Hans Baluschek
• Ernst Barlach
• Rudolf Bauer
• Philipp Bauknecht
• Otto Baum [de]
• Willi Baumeister
• Herbert Bayer
• Max Beckmann
• Rudolf Belling
• Paul Bindel
• Theodor Brün [de]
• Max Burchartz
• Fritz Burger-Mühlfeld [de]
• Paul Camenisch
• Heinrich Campendonk
• Karl Caspar
• Maria Caspar-Filser
• Politician Cassel
• Marc Chagall
• Lovis Corinth
• Heinrich Maria Davringhausen
• Walter Dexel
• Johannes Diesner
• Otto Dix
• Pranas Domšaitis
• Hans Christoph Drexel
• Johannes Driesch
• Heinrich Eberhard
• Max Ernst
• Hans Feibusch
• Lyonel Feininger
• Conrad Felixmüller
• Otto Freundlich
• Xaver Fuhr [de]
• Ludwig Gies
• Werner Gilles
• Otto Gleichmann
• Rudolf Großmann
• George Grosz
• Hans Grundig
• Rudolf Haizmann
• Raoul Hausmann
• Guido Hebert [cs]
• Erich Heckel
• Wilhelm Heckrott [de]
• Jacoba van Heemskerck
• Hans Siebert von Heister [no]
• Oswald Herzog [de]
• Werner Heuser
• Heinrich Hoerle
• Karl Hofer
• Eugen Hoffmann
• Johannes Itten
• Alexej von Jawlensky
• Eric Johansson [de]
• Hans Jürgen Kallmann
• Wassily Kandinsky
• Hanns Katz
• Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
• Paul Klee
• Cesar Klein
• Paul Kleinschmidt
• Oskar Kokoschka
• Otto Lange
• Wilhelm Lehmbruck
• Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler
• El Lissitzky
• Oskar Lüthy
• Franz Marc
• Gerhard Marcks
• Ewald Mataré
• Ludwig Meidner
• Jean Metzinger
• Constantin von Mitschke-Collande [de]
• László Moholy-Nagy
• Marg Moll
• Oskar Moll
• Johannes Molzahn
• Piet Mondrian
• Georg Muche
• Otto Mueller
• Magda Nachman Acharya
• Erich Nagel
• Heinrich Nauen
• Ernst Wilhelm Nay
• Karel Niestrath [de]
• Emil Nolde
• Otto Pankok
• Max Pechstein
• Max Peiffer Watenphul
• Hans Purrmann
• Max Rauh [no]
• Hans Richter
• Emy Roeder
• Christian Rohlfs
• Edwin Scharff
• Oskar Schlemmer
• Rudolf Schlichter
• Karl Schmidt-Rottluff
• Werner Scholz [de]
• Lothar Schreyer
• Otto Schubert
• Kurt Schwitters
• Lasar Segall
• Fritz Skade [de]
• Heinrich Stegemann
• Fritz Stuckenberg
• Paul Thalheimer
• Johannes Tietz [no]
• Arnold Topp [de]
• Friedrich Vordemberge-Gildewart
• Karl Völker
• Christoph Voll
• William Wauer
• Gert Heinrich Wollheim

Artistic movements condemned as degenerate [edit]

• Bauhaus
• Cubism
• Dada
• Expressionism
• Fauvism
• Impressionism
• Post-Impressionism
• New Objectivity
• Surrealism

Listing [edit]

The Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda (Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda) compiled a 479-page, 2-volume typewritten listing of the works confiscated as "degenerate" from Germany's public institutions in 1937–38. In 1996 the Victoria and Albert Museum in London acquired the only known surviving copy of the complete listing. The certificate was donated to the V&A's National Art Library by Elfriede Fischer, the widow of the art dealer Heinrich Robert ("Harry") Fischer. Copies were made available to other libraries and research organisations at the fourth dimension, and much of the information was subsequently incorporated into a database maintained by the Freie Universität Berlin.^{[54] [55]}

A digital reproduction of the entire inventory was published on the Victoria and Albert Museum's website in January 2014. The V&A'south publication consists of two PDFs, one for each of the original volumes. Both PDFs also include an introduction in English language and German.^[56] An online version of the inventory was made bachelor on the V&A's website in November 2019, with additional features. The new edition uses IIIF page-turning software and incorporates an interactive index arranged by city and museum. The earlier PDF edition remains available too.^[57]

The 5&A's copy of the total inventory is idea to have been compiled in 1941 or 1942, after the sales and disposals were completed.^[58] Two copies of an earlier version of Book 1 (A–G) besides survive in the German Federal Athenaeum in Berlin, and one of these is annotated to testify the fate of individual artworks. Until the V&A obtained the complete inventory in 1996, all versions of Book 2 (M–Z) were thought to have been destroyed.^[59] The listings are arranged alphabetically past metropolis, museum and creative person. Details include artist surname, inventory number, title and medium, followed past a lawmaking indicating the fate of the artwork, then the surname of the buyer or art dealer (if any) and any cost paid.^[59] The entries also include abbreviations to indicate whether the work was included in whatsoever of the various Entartete Kunst exhibitions (run into Degenerate Art Exhibition) or Der ewige Jude (see The Eternal Jew (fine art exhibition)).^[threescore]

The chief dealers mentioned are Bernhard A. Böhmer (or Boehmer), Karl Buchholz, Hildebrand Gurlitt, and Ferdinand Möller. The manuscript besides contains entries for many artworks caused by the artist Emanuel Fohn, in exchange for other works.^[61]

21st-century reactions [edit]

Neil Levi, writing in The Chronicle of College Education, suggested that the branding of fine art as "degenerate" was but partly an aesthetic aim of the Nazis. Another was the confiscation of valuable artwork, a deliberate means to enrich the regime.^[62]

In popular culture [edit]

A Picasso, a play by Jeffrey Hatcher based loosely on actual events, is set in Paris 1941 and sees Picasso being asked to authenticate three works for inclusion in an upcoming exhibition of Degenerate art.^{[63] [64]}

In the 1964 film The Railroad train, a German language Army colonel attempts to steal hundreds of "degenerate" paintings from Paris before it is liberated during World War II.^[65]

Meet also [edit]

• Gurlitt Collection
• Karl Buchholz (fine art dealer)
• Fine art of the Third Reich
• Low culture
• Nazi plunder

References [edit]

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art), complete inventory of over 16,000 artworks confiscated past the Nazi regime from public institutions in Germany, 1937–1938, Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda. Victoria and Albert Museum, Albert Gleizes, Landschaft bei Paris, n. 7030, Volume 2, p. 57 (includes the Entartete Kunst inventory)". Vam.air-conditioning.great britain. 1939-06-xxx. Retrieved 2014-08-14 .
2. ^ "The Collection | Entartete Kunst". MoMA. Retrieved 2010-08-12 .
3. ^ Barron 1991, p. 26.
4. ^ Adam 1992, pp. 23–24.
5. ^ Newman, Ernest, and Richard Wagner (1899). A Study of Wagner. London: Dobell. pp. 272–275. OCLC 253374235.
6. ^ Adam 1992, pp. 29–32.
7. ^ Grosshans 1983, p. nine. Grosshans calls Schultze-Naumburg "[u]ndoubtedly the most important" of the era'southward German critics of modernism.
8. ^ Adam 1992, p. 33.
9. ^ Adam 1992, p. 29.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Kühnel, Anita (2003). "Entartete Kunst". Grove Art Online.
11. ^ Goldstein, Robert Justin, and Andrew Nedd (2015). Political Censorship of the Visual Arts in Nineteenth-Century Europe: Arresting Images. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 159. ISBN 9780230248700.
12. ^ Adam 1992, p. 110.
13. ^ Norbert Wolf, Uta Grosenick (2004), Expressionism, Taschen, p. 34. ISBN iii-8228-2126-eight.
14. ^ Barron 1991, p. 54.
15. ^ Grosshans 1983, p. 86.
16. ^ Barron 1991, p. 83.
17. ^ Zalampas, Sherree Owens, 1937- (1990). Adolf Hitler : a psychological interpretation of his views on architecture, fine art, and music. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green University Popular Press. ISBN0879724870. OCLC 22438356. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link), p. 54
18. ^ Albert Gleizes, Paysage près de Paris (Paysage de Courbevoie, Landschaft bei Paris), oil on canvass, 72.8 × 87.i cm. Lost Art Net Database, Stiftung Deutsches Zentrum Kulturgutverluste.
19. ^ "Jean Metzinger, Im Boot (En Canot), Degenerate Art Database (Beschlagnahme Inventar, Entartete Kunst)". Emuseum.campus.fu-berlin.de. Retrieved 2013-11-09 .
20. ^ "Degenerate Fine art Database (Beschlagnahme Inventar, Entartete Kunst)". Emuseum.campus.fu-berlin.de. Retrieved 2013-11-09 .
21. ^ Adam 1992, p. 52.
22. ^ ^{a b} Adam 1992, p. 53.
23. ^ Barron 1991, p. 10.
24. ^ Grosshans 1983, p. 87.
25. ^ Adam 1992, p. 56.
26. ^ Grosshans 1983, pp. 73–74.
27. ^ Boa, Elizabeth, and Rachel Palfreyman (2000). Heimat: a German Dream: Regional Loyalties and National Identity in German language Culture, 1890–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Printing. p. 158. ISBN 0198159226.
28. ^ Kimmelman, Michael (June 19, 2014). "The Art Hitler Hated". The New York Review of Books 61 (xi): 25–26.
29. ^ Laqueur 1996, p. 74.
30. ^ Laqueur 1996, p. 73.
31. ^ Laqueur 1996, pp. 73–75.
32. ^ Adam 1992, p. 123, quoting Goebbels, Nov 26, 1937, in Von der Grossmacht zur Weltmacht.
33. ^ Adam 1992, pp. 121–122.
34. ^ Barron 1991, p. 46.
35. ^ Evans 2004, p. 106.
36. ^ Barron 1991, p. 9.
37. ^ Barron, Stephanie, Guenther and Peter W., "Degenerate Fine art": The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany], LACMA, 1991, ISBN 0810936534.
38. ^ Barron 1991, pp. 47–48.
39. ^ "Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art), complete inventory of artworks confiscated past the Nazi regime from public institutions in Germany, 1937–1938, Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda. Victoria and Albert Museum". Vam.ac.uk. 1939-06-thirty. Retrieved 2014-08-14 .
40. ^ Adam 1992, pp. 124–125.
41. ^ Schulz-Hoffmann and Weiss 1984, p. 461.
42. ^ Karcher 1988, p. 206.
43. ^ Bradley 1986, p. 115.
44. ^ Petropoulos 2000, p. 217.
45. ^ Grosshans 1983, p. 113.
46. ^ "Entartete Kunst". Olinda.com. 1937-07-19. Retrieved 2010-08-12 .
47. ^ Hellman, Mallory, Let'due south Become Paris, p. 84.
48. ^ Bertrand Dorléac, Laurence (1993). Fifty'art de la défaite, 1940–1944. Paris: Editions du Seuil. p. 482. ISBN 2020121255.
49. ^ Oosterlinck, Kim (2009). "The Price of Degenerate Art", Working Papers CEB 09-031.RS, ULB – Universite Libre de Bruxelles.
50. ^ Kraus & Obermair 2019, pp. xl–one.
51. ^ Hickley, Catherine (1946-09-27). "'Degenerate' Art Unearthed From Berlin Bomb Rubble". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2010-xi-ten .
52. ^ Black, Rosemary (November 9, 2010). "Rescued pre-WWII 'degenerate fine art' on display in the Neues Museum in Berlin". Nydailynews.com. Retrieved 2010-11-10 .
53. ^ Charles Hawley (November 8, 2010). "Nazi Degenerate Art Rediscovered in Berlin". Der Spiegel.
54. ^ "V&A Entartete Kunst webpage". Vam.ac.u.k.. 1939-06-30. Retrieved 2014-08-14 .
55. ^ "Freie Universität Berlin Database "Entartete Kunst"". Geschkult.fu-berlin.de. 2013-08-28. Retrieved 2014-08-14 .
56. ^ Entartete Kunst, Victoria and Albert Museum. 2014.
57. ^ Explore 'Entartete Kunst': The Nazis' inventory of 'degenerate art', Victoria and Albert Museum. 2019.
58. ^ Victoria and Albert Museum 2014. Introduction by Douglas Dodds & Heike Zech, p. i.
59. ^ ^{a b} Victoria and Albert Museum 2014. Introduction past Douglas Dodds & Heike Zech, p. two.
60. ^ Victoria and Albert Museum 2014, vol. i, p. 7.
61. ^ Victoria and Albert Museum 2014, vol. 1 and two.
62. ^ Neil Levi, "The Uses of Nazi 'Degenerate Art'", The Chronicle of Higher Pedagogy (Nov. 12, 2013).
63. ^ Isherwood, C. (April 20, 2005). "Portrait of the Artist as a Master of the 1-Liner". The New York Times . Retrieved June 22, 2013.
64. ^ Blake, J. (October 3, 2012). "Ve haff vays of being unintentionally funny". Sydney Morn Herald . Retrieved June 22, 2013.
65. ^ "Train, The (1965) – (Movie Clip) Degenerate Fine art". Archived from the original on February xv, 2015. Retrieved February 15, 2015.

Bibliography [edit]

• Adam, Peter (1992). Art of the Third Reich. New York: Harry North. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-1912-5
• Barron, Stephanie, ed. (1991). 'Degenerate Art': The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Federal republic of germany. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-3653-4
• Bradley, W. S. (1986). Emil Nolde and German Expressionism: A prophet in his Own State. Ann Arbor, Mich: UMI Inquiry Press. ISBN 0-8357-1700-3
• Evans, R. J. (2004). The Coming of the Third Reich. New York: The Penguin Press. ISBN ane-59420-004-1
• Grosshans, Henry (1983). Hitler and the Artists. New York: Holmes & Meyer. ISBN 0-8419-0746-3
• Grosshans, Henry (1993). Hitler and the Artists. New York: Holmes & Meyer. ISBN 0-8109-3653-4
• Karcher, Eva (1988). Otto Dix 1891–1969: His Life and Works. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen. OCLC 21265198
• Kraus, Carl; Obermair, Hannes (2019). Mythen der Diktaturen. Kunst in Faschismus und Nationalsozialismus – Miti delle dittature. Arte nel fascismo e nazionalsocialismo. Landesmuseum für Kultur- und Landesgeschichte Schloss Tirol. ISBN978-88-95523-16-iii.
• Laqueur, Walter (1996). Fascism: By, Present, Futurity. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509245-seven
• Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1973). Art Under a Dictatorship. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Minnion, John (2nd edition 2005). Hitler'southward List: An Illustrated Guide to 'Degenerates' . Liverpool: Checkmate Books. ISBN 0-9544499-ii-4
• Nordau, Max (1998). Degeneration, introduction by George L. Mosse. New York: Howard Fertig. ISBN 0-8032-8367-9 / (1895) London: William Heinemann
• O'Brien, Jeff (2015). "'The Taste of Sand in the Mouth': 1939 and 'Degenerate' Egyptian Art". Disquisitional Interventions 9, Issue i: 22–34.
• Oosterlinck, Kim (2009). "The Toll of Degenerate Art", Working Papers CEB 09-031.RS, ULB—Universite Libre de Bruxelles,
• Petropoulos, Jonathan (2000). The Faustian Bargain: the Art World in Nazi Germany. New York, Northward.Y.: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-nineteen-512964-4
• Rose, Carol Washton Long (1995). Documents from the Finish of the Wilhemine Empire to the Ascension of National Socialism. San Francisco: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20264-3
• Schulz-Hoffmann, Carla; Weiss, Judith C. (1984). Max Beckmann: Retrospective. Munich: Prestel. ISBN 0-393-01937-3
• Suslav, Vitaly (1994). The State Hermitage: Masterpieces from the Museum'south Collections. vol. ii Western European Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 1-873968-03-five
• Victoria and Albert Museum (2014). "Entartete" Kunst: digital reproduction of a typescript inventory prepared by the Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda, ca. 1941/1942. London: Victoria and Albert Museum. (V&A NAL MSL/1996/7)]

External links [edit]

External video
Art in Nazi Deutschland, Smarthistory

• "Degenerate Art", article from A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust
• Nazis Looted Europe's Great Art
• Victoria and Albert Museum Entartete Kunst, Volume 1 and 2 Complete inventory of artworks confiscated by the Nazi regime from public institutions in Germany, 1937–1938
• Video prune of the Degenerate art show
• Sensational Discover in a Bombed-Out Cellar - slideshow by Der Spiegel
• "Entartete Kunst: Degenerate Art", notes and a supplement to the film
• Video on a research projection near Degenerate Art
• The "Degenerate Art" Exhibit, 1937
• Collection: "All Artists in the Degenerate Fine art Bear witness" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerate_art

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